From silence to resilience: The evolving narrative of feminism in Japan
From silence to resilience: The evolving narrative of feminism in Japan
WRITTEN BY DR MINAKSHI KEENI
11 January 2024
Japan has long grappled with persistent gender inequality, consistently ranking low on the Global Gender Gap Index — 121st in 2019 and 125th in 2023 out of 146 countries. While neighbouring countries like South Korea and China actively work to bridge this inequality gap, ranking 105th and 107th respectively in 2023, Japan appears to be less proactive in pursuing gender parity in alignment with trends seen in advanced economies. This raises a pertinent question: why has one of the world's most advanced economies, with a high nominal GDP, struggled to uplift and empower women? An answer that may be traced through Japan’s intricate history.
Japanese feminism has evolved uniquely, shaped by its cultural and historical context. Compared to global trends where feminist movements often directly challenged societal norms, Japan's movement started more subtly during the Meiji era, integrating Western influences while navigating a society deeply rooted in Confucian values. The distinctiveness of Japan's feminist movement lies in its blend of advocating for women's rights within a framework that initially supported traditional roles, leading to contemporary expressions of feminism that address both global issues and those specific to Japanese society.
Historical threads of gender inequality
Japan's journey towards gender equality reflects a society in flux, caught between the undertow of its historical norms and the forward currents of modernity. The Meiji era (1868-1912) marked the onset of feminist waves in Japan, where women advocated for their rights, including suffrage and access to education. This period also witnessed dark chapters, such as the forced conscription of 'comfort women' — thousands of women and girls, many of Korean descent, coerced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army during the wartime period. The issue has become a poignant symbol of Japan's struggle to reconcile with its past and the broader feminist fight against historical injustices.
Japan's ranking in global gender equality indices signals room for improvement, reinforcing the persistent need for initiatives that encourage greater involvement of women in political leadership roles.
This history set the stage for the 20th-century feminist movement, which focused on demanding political rights, expanded educational opportunities, and labour reforms, especially for the majority of Japanese women engaged in unpaid agricultural labour on family farms or plots. In 1945, Japanese women secured the right to vote, a milestone closely linked to societal changes following World War II. The 1947 Constitution played a pivotal role by emphasising equality in political, economic, and social relations, providing the groundwork for women's suffrage in Japan.
Before World War II, Japan adhered to traditional gender roles deeply influenced by Confucian norms, with women expected to embody the ideals of "good wives and wise mothers" (ryosai kenbo). This concept emphasized women's roles as supportive, nurturing figures within the family, encouraging subservience, obedience, and passivity. Legal frameworks, such as the Meiji Civil Code of 1898, further institutionalised the subordinate position of women within the family, with husbands designated as household heads and wives legally obligated to obey.
In the post-World War II era, Japan underwent significant societal changes, including legal reforms aimed at fostering gender equality. The 1947 Constitution, enacted under Allied Occupation, introduced principles of equality and individual rights, challenging traditional gender roles. Despite these reforms, the legacy of ryosai kenbo has persisted, influencing societal expectations of women's roles within the family, often hindering their pursuit of careers outside the home. Over time, the influence of this ideal has evolved. In contemporary Japan, there are diverse perspectives on women’s roles, with ongoing discussions about gender equality and societal expectations. Thus, the legacy of ryosai kenbo coexists with modern views that recognise a wider range of women’s roles and contributions both at home and in society.
Feminist movements gained momentum in the post-war period as women sought to challenge traditional norms and advocate for greater equality, including in the economy and at the workplace. Notable feminist leaders emerged, including Raicho Hiratsuka, who founded the first all-women literary magazine "Seito" in 1911. Beate Sirota Gordon played a crucial role in drafting the post-war Japanese constitution, contributing to its provisions promoting gender equality. Fusae Ichikawa, a suffragist and feminist, campaigned for women's suffrage and played a key role in the women's movement.
The increased participation of women in the post-war workforce did bring along some positive shifts in workplace cultures and practices, with around 50 per cent of the women engaged in the labour force taking up non-regular roles (referring to positions that are temporary, part-time, or contractual arrangements) as compared to one-third of the male population. During this transformative period, women’s wages were often not considered central to a family’s income; instead, they were viewed as supplementary or ‘extras’. The prevailing societal mindset assumed that a man’s income was the primary support for a family, with his wife and children being deemed dependents. This perspective contributed to the persistence of low wages for women, which remains a glaring issue today, with most women unable to rise to higher ranks. However, the increased participation of women in the workforce indicates evolving workplace practices and the breaking of traditional employment patterns, although wage disparities and limited advancement to higher ranks remain challenges to be addressed.
Japanese society often places a strong emphasis on conformity, which can make it difficult for women to challenge traditional norms. Despite many Japanese women pursuing higher education and careers, they still face substantial societal pressure to marry and have children. A recent infamous incident involving Tokyo Medical University and other medical schools sheds light on the unfavourable treatment of female candidates in entrance exams. These candidates were penalised based on the assumption that they would be unwelcomed in the medical profession due to potential maternity leave, reflecting deeply rooted gender biases.
This pressure to conform to traditional roles can have unintended consequences as well. Many women choose to postpone or forgo marriage and motherhood in response to societal perceptions. This choice exposes them to derogatory labels such as ‘leftover Christmas cake’ if they remain unmarried past the age of 25. Contemporary Japanese feminists, including figures like Mizuho Fukushima, have raised concerns about the pressure on women to conform to gender roles and marry. Legal reforms have also played a significant role in advancing women's rights in Japan, with acts like the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 2016 encouraging workplace opportunities for women and laws addressing dating violence introduced in 2020.
Challenges in Japanese political representation
Despite global progress toward gender equality, Japanese politics has historically marginalised women with only approximately 11 per cent occupying seats in the parliament as of 2022, highlighting a significant gender gap in representation. While a part of the blame may be attributed to the notion of women being less motivated than men to run for leadership positions, sexist comments made by men in leadership positions are also a substantial contributing factor. A recent example involves that of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) of Japan, stating that the ruling party would be allowing five female lawmakers to observe their all-male board meeting. Yet, they are to ‘look, not talk’ and submit their opinions only after the end of the meeting.
Yet, there have been positive developments, such as an increase in the number of women running for office in the 2022 Upper House election by 5 per cent from 2019 and the active efforts of organisations like the Japanese Association of Women in Politics (JAWP) to encourage women's participation in politics. Notable female leaders have emerged in recent years, contributing to the broader discourse on gender in politics. Breaking barriers in 2001, Ryoko Akamatsu became Japan's first female cabinet minister, holding the position of Minister of State for Okinawa and Northern Territories Affairs. Yuriko Koike, a prominent political figure, achieved a historic milestone in 2016 by becoming the first female governor of Tokyo, having previously served as Japan's Minister of Defence.
While these individuals mark significant successes, the broader landscape of women's representation in Japanese politics continues to face challenges, prompting ongoing discussions and efforts to address gender parity. Japan's ranking in global gender equality indices signals room for improvement, reinforcing the persistent need for initiatives that encourage greater involvement of women in political leadership roles.
Imperial controversies and the gender succession debate in Japan
In the land where ancient traditions intersect with modern values, the Japanese Imperial Family finds itself at the heart of a contentious debate: the prospect of a female monarch. The Imperial House Law of 1947, echoing centuries-old customs, upholds a male-only succession line — an edict that has sparked intense dialogue in light of the Imperial Family's shrinking size. Princess Mako's marriage to a commoner and Princess Aiko's potential yet prohibited ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne challenge deeply ingrained norms, prompting a national reflection on the roles of women in the highest echelons of societal structure.
The public discourse surrounding Princess Mako's decision to wed Kei Komuro, a commoner, serves as a microcosm of the broader societal challenges faced by women in Japan. This choice confronted Japan’s imperial traditions head-on, as the couple navigated obstacles including a prolonged separation and a financial dispute involving Komuro’s mother. The extensive media coverage and scrutiny from conservative circles culminated in Princess Mako relinquishing her royal status upon marriage, a personal decision that sparked a national conversation about the role of women in high-profile positions and the archaic succession laws of the Japanese monarchy.
Simultaneously, Princess Aiko, the sole child of Emperor Naruhito, remains barred from the throne under the same succession laws that prioritise male heirs. This restriction has intensified the dialogue on potential reforms within the imperial household, especially given the dwindling number of male descendants. Such debates are pivotal, reflecting the societal pulse on tradition versus progression and the recognition of women's equal rights in assuming roles of authority.
#MeToo movement
Originating in the United States in 2017, the #MeToo movement quickly gained global momentum as women worldwide came forward to share their experiences of sexual harassment and assault. Japan’s unique cultural norms and values — particularly the emphasis on collectivism and social harmony — posed a significant obstacle to the #MeToo movement. The cultural norm of valuing group harmony discouraged women from reporting instances of sexual harassment. Openly addressing sensitive topics like sexual harassment and challenging traditional values and conformity also posed a significant challenge. Survivors who dared to share their stories faced public scrutiny, victim-blaming, and online harassment.
Nevertheless, the movement has left an indelible impact in Japan, inspiring women to bravely step forward and share their experiences through various social media platforms. Prominent cases, including that of journalist Shiori Ito who fearlessly spoke out about her assault, emboldened feminists to demand an end to workplace harassment and challenge the prevailing culture of silence surrounding such issues.
The #MeToo movement also triggered discussions about the need for legal and organisational reforms to address sexual harassment and assault. In response, companies and institutions began re-evaluating their policies and practices. A notable instance is of six sports organisations in Japan including the Japan Sport Association (JSPO) launching an initiative to eradicate harassment and abuse in sports by spreading the message ‘NO! Spohara’ on social media. However, it's important to note that the movement, while making significant strides, has not led to a complete transformation of societal attitudes. In 2022, Kanako Otsuji’s questioning of the appropriateness of sexualised female illustrations being displayed as advertisements at station exits was met with criticism, backlash, and comments like ‘crazy feminists!’. This situation illustrates a divide: institutions may progress with policies against harassment, but societal mindsets, steeped in conservative views, adapt more slowly, highlighting the ongoing struggle for cultural shifts alongside policy changes.
The narrative of feminism in Japan is one of resilience and adaptability, transitioning from silence to empowerment, from acceptance to advocacy. It evolves in the face of challenges, from historical inequalities to the #Metoo movement. Japan’s journey is one of progress, with women advocating their rights and challenging social norms. While Japan has a long way to go, the strength and determination of those advocating for gender equality in the ‘Land of the Rising Sun’ remain unwavering.
DISCLAIMER: All views expressed are those of the writer and do not necessarily represent that of the 9DASHLINE.com platform.
Author biography
Dr Minakshi Keeni is an assistant professor at the Laboratory of International Development Economics, Tohoku University, Japan. Her research interests include gender and sexuality studies, family sociology, refugee studies, and social inequality in parts of Asia. Keeni's recent research focuses on gender issues among Rohingya refugees as well as same-sex partnership recognition policies and their impact on society. Before joining Tohoku University, she was a JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow. Image credit: Unsplash/Bohdan Maylove.